The reform movement and the natural methods

The grammar translation method was not very convincing so, in the mid and late nineteenth century, researchers started to look for another method of teaching. The most representative linguists of that time were Paul Passy in France, Henrry Sweet in England, and Wethlem Vietor in Germany. Although they often differed in the procedures for teaching, in general they believe that:

1. The spoken language is primary and that this should be reflected in an oral-based methodology
2. The findings of phonetics should be applied to teaching and to teacher training
3. Learners should hear the language first, before seeing it in written form
4. Words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practised in meaningful contexts and not be taught as isolated, disconnected elements.
5. The rules of grammar should be taught only after the students have practised the grammar points in contexts that is, grammar should be taught inductively.
6. Translation should be avoided, althought the mother tongue could be used in order to explain new words or to check comprehension (Richards and Rogers 1986:8)

The above principles reflect the beginning of applied linguistics that brand of language study concerned with the scientific study of second and foreign language teaching and learning (Richards and Rogers 1988: 8)

At the same time these ideas were developing, there was an interes in "Developing principles for language teaching out of naturalistic principles of language learning, such as are seen in first language acquisition. This led to what have been termed natural methods.

Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching

While the direct method was in vogue in the USA, in England, British applied linguists Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby, among others, in the 1920's and the 1930's (Richards and Rogers 1986:31) This approach was called the oral approach, later known as the situational approach or structural-situational approach and situational Language teaching.

The characteristics of the oral approach are similar to those of the Audiolingual Method developed in the USA, although worked independently.

The basis principles of the oral Approach were emphasis on teaching a wide range of vocabulary and grammar, but seen from a different point of view than that of the GTM. In the oral approach grammar was seen as sentence patterns (Richards and Rogers 1986:32-33)

This approach was widely developed in Europe during the 1950's and its characteristics were as follows:

1. Language Teaching begins with the spoken language. MAterial is taught orally before it is presented in written form.
2. The TL is the language of the classroom
3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.
4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure than an essential general service vocabulary is covered
5. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones.
6. Reading and writing are introoduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis established (Richards and Rogers 1986:34)

The objectives of the oral approach or situational language teaching are to teach the main four skills but approach though structure. Accuracy is essential in grammar and pronunciation. The practice techniques employed generally consist of the guide repetition, and substitution activities, including chorus repetition, dictation, drills, and controlled oral based reading and writing tasks. other oral-practice techniques are sometimes used, including  pair practice and group work. (Richards and Rogers 1986:38)

Language Teaching: Direct Method

The principles of natural methods were the basis for what came to be the Direct Method. The most representative supporter of this method was Maximilian Berlitz in the USA, who established a chain of commercial language schools through the States. He baptized the method he used in his school as the Berlitz Methid. The characteristics of the Method were:

1. classroom instruction was donducted exclusively in the target language
2. only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught
3. oral communication skills were built in a carefully graded progression organized around question and answer exchanges between trachers and students in small, intensive classes.
4. grammar was taught inductively
5. new traching points were introduced orally
6. concrete vocabulary was taught by association of ideas
7. both speech and listening comprehension were taught
8. correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized  (Richard and Rogers 1988)

The most representative rule of the Direct Method is not translation "the Direct Method receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be connected directly with the target language without going through the preocess of translating into the students' native language" (Larsen:1998)

Some common problems that teamwork has

Floudering: discussions, and decisions my be posponed

Dominating participants and reluctant participans: take more than their share of the discussion by talking to often, asserting superiority, telling lengthy, or not letting others finish

Digressions and tangents: too many interesting side stories can be obstacles to group progress

Rush to work: one person in the group is less patient. This person may reach a decision more quickly than the others and then pressure the group to move on before others are ready

Feuds: occasionally a conflict

Ignoring or ridiculing others: Sb ognores or ridicules what others say, criticizing their experience or knowledge

Noisy: the noise level may rise because of the close interaction

Native language: the learners may start talking about whatever they want in their native language

Loss of attention: the teacher may not be able to get the learners' attention again and lose control of the class.

( This information was taken from a Literature course in the University of Veracruz., 2004)

Reasons to organize Students to work in groups

• To develop of a range of skills such as chairing, organization, group/interpersonal work and peer tutoring
• Ability to work in a team is one of the most important qualities looked for by most employers
• team work encourages creative thinking
• Assessing group work saves assessment time
• Variety and dynamism

THINGS THAT HAVE TO BE CONSIDERED FOR WORKING IN GROUPS

• Groups work best if people know each others' names
• Be sure to include everyine when considering ideas
• Take turns for different works or different phrases of the work
• Go around the group and hear everyone's ideas or encourage divergent thinking by brainstorming

The good language teacher

The good language teacher:

• friendly
• explains things
• gives good notes
• knows how to treat sb who sits ate desk for six hours
• lets the Ss do it by themselves
• elicits info. from Ss
• plays games related to the topic of the subject
• asks Ss' oppinions
• is forceful but not strict
• is educated
• knows about psychology
• uses movement to make meaning clear
• makes sure everybody understand
• is funny sometimes but not always
• believes in Ss and makes Ss believe in teacher
• makes grammar clear
• gives advice
• among others...

Use storytelling in class

Use storytelling in ESL class because:

1. It helps to develop the Ss' udnerstanding of narrative structure
2. You will have the Ss' attention
3. Telling folktales themselves will help the Ss with their paragraphrasing skills, which in turn is helpful in writing research papers
4. Folktales are in public domain, their themes are timeless and universale, and they are part of everybody nation's oral tradition
5. When you tell a story instead of reading it you have eye contact with the audience and can judge when to give more explanation or wen to skip over some datails to get to the climax. The audiece also has full access to your gestures and facial expressions.
6. The stories themselves can be a jumping off point for the major skill areas.

Choose a tale that:

1. You want to tell
2. With one simple plot
3. With few interesting characters, not too many
4. With lots of action building to a climax
5. That has a short introduction that sets the stage
6. That will be interesting to your audience

An effective Storyteller:

1. Tells a story that has a beginning that catches the audience's attention, a clear telling of all the events in sequence, and an effective ending
2. Uses pauses to emphasize an importan word, but not too many unnecessary pauses
3. Looks at the audience
4. Uses posture and gestures to help te story
5. Uses different voice pitch for different characters such as a deep voice for a night.

Tips for learning a tale:

1. Read the whole tale yourselve
2. Read it again out loud. listen to the sound of the language
3. Memorize the opening sentence, the conclusion, and maybe a few key words but no more. Don't memorize the whole tale. That will make it boring for your listeners.
4. Develop pictures in your mind of the action in the order that it happens. It might help to draw pictures or list a few words to remind you of the events
5. Try to tell the tale in your own words to remind you of the events
6. Practice the tale until you feel comfortable with it. Remember, you are not memorizing the story word for word. you are remembering te story, just like you remember what you did last week or the plot of your favorite movie, so that you can tell a friend.

(This information was taken from a workshop given by Sandy Miller and Patricia Lima Costa in a MEXTESOL convention 2005)

Estrategias de enseñanza

Visual
Uso de:

• instrucciones escritas
• Mapas conceptuales
• Diagramas, esquemas, etc.
• Animaciones
• Videos
• Fotografías

Auditivo
Uso de:

• Instrucciones verbales
• CDs
• Lluvia de ideas
• Lectura guiada
• Leer el texto de manera reflexiva

Lectura/escritura
Uso de:

• Escritos de un minuto
• Composiciones literarias
• Resumenés
• Sintesís
• Reseñas

Kinestético
Uso de:

• Juego de roles
• Dramatizaciones
• Dinámicas
• El pizarrón
• Manipulación de objetos.

Rojano Salas, 2008

Estilos de Aprendizaje

Estilos de aprendizaje:

1. Visual
2. Auditivo
3. Leer
4. Kinestético

Visual:

• Los de tipo visual prefieren el uso de imágenes, cuadros, diagramas, circulos, flechas y láminas al momento de estudiar o aprender conceptos nuevos, prefieren un ambiente ordenado dentro de la clase, les gusta las fotografías en los cuentos y libros que leen.

Auditivo:

• A quien le gusta escuchar prefiere sonidos armónicos, canciones, voz melodiosa y gran elocuencia, aprende lo que oye a base de repetir, modula el tono y el timbre de voz.

Lectura:

• A los que prefieren leer, les gustan los diálogos y las obras de teatro, por supuesto leer libros, recuerda los nombres pero no las caras, tiene buena ortografía.

Kinestético:

• Los estudiantes requieren aprender tocando, experimentando con el tacto, se mueven al leer y gesticulan mucho, recuerdan lo que hicieron y la impresión que ello les causó, pero no los detalles.

(Informacion tomada de la antologia "Elaboración de materiales educativos".Rojano Salas, 2008)

Taxonomia de los objetivos de la educación

Taxonomia de los objetivos de la educación de acuerdo con Benjamin Bloom

1. Memoria
2. Comprensión
3. Aplicación
4. Análisis
5. Síntesis
6. Evaluación

Memoria: datos, términos, evetos, hechos, métodos, convenciones, tendencias, secuencias, estructuras, generalizaciones, principios y teorías.

Comprensión: entender el significado de la información

• Traducir: convertir de una forma a otra
• Interpretar: explicar o resumir la información
• Explorar: extender el significado más alla de los datos.

Aplicación: uso de la información en situaciones concretas.

• Llevar a cabo una tarea
• Dar ejemplos
• Hacer una demostración

Análisis: examinar la información con sus partes

• Elementos: identificar partes
• Relaciones: identificar las relaciones
• Proncipios organizados: identificar la forma en que estan identificadas las partes

Síntesis: integrar las partes en un todo

• Elaborar una sola comunicación
• Elaborar un plan o un conjunto de operaciones
• Deducir un conjunto de relaciones abstractas

Evaluación: juzgar el valor de algo para determinado propósito empleando criterios definidos

• Juicios en función de criterios internos y externos
• Juicios en función de criterios subjetivos u objetivos

Procesos Cognitivos

Procesos Cognitivos

• Es la capacidad que posee el ser humano que contribuye a facilitar la adquisición, habilidades y conocimientos y a despertar la plena conciencia de lo que se sabe.
• Es la capacidad de pensar (procesar información)

Margarita A. de Sánchez, 2004

Medios de Enseñanza

Método:

Es el conjunto de momentos y formas lógicamente coordinados para dirigir el aprendizaje del alumno hacia determinados objetivos.

 

Técnica:

Se refiere a la manera de utilizar los recursos didácticos para el resultado efectivo del aprendizaje en el educando.

Métodos de Enseñanza

 

En cuanto a la forma de razonamiento:

• Método deductivo: es cuando el asunto esrudiado procede de lo general a lo particular
• Método inductivo: es cuando el asunto estudiado se presenta por medio de casos particulares, sugiriéndose que se descubra el principio general que los rige.
• Método analógico o comparativo: cuando los datos particulares que se presentan permiten establecer comparaciones  que lleven a una conclusión por semejanza.

En cuanto a las actividades de los alumnos:

• Método pasivo: se le denomina de este modo cuando se acentúa la actividad del profesor, permaneciendo los alumnos en actitud pasiva y recibiendo los conocimientos y el saber suministrado por aquél.
• Método activo: es cuando se tiene en cuenta el desarrollo de la clase contando con la participación del alumno, la clase se desenvuelve por parte del alumno, convirtiéndose el profesor en un orientador, un guía, un incentivador y no en un transmisor de saber.

En cuanto a la coordinacion de la materia:

• Método lógico: es cuando los datos o los hechos son presentados en orden de antecedente y consecuente, obedeciendo a una estructuración de hechos que van desde lo simple hasta lo más complejo.
• Método pscicológico: es cuando la presentación de los métodos no sigue tanto un orden lógico como un orden mas cercano a los intereces y necesidades.

Estrattegias de enseñanza:

 

• Son cursos de acción que permiten al docente enseñar a  aprender a los alumnos.
• Herramientas que orientan los esfuerzos del alumno en el logro de los objetivos, que es el aprendizaje mismo.

 

Frida Díaz Barriga, 2004

Didáctica

Didáctida:

 

Disciplina de naturaleza pedagógica orientada po las finalidades educativas y comprometida con el logro de la mejora de todos los seres humanos, mediante la comprensión y transformación permanente de los procesos socio-comunicativos y la adopción y el desarrollo apropiado del proceso E-A

 

 

Objetivo de la Didáctica:

 

El objeto de la didáctica es la enseñanza sistemática, cuyo contenido es la cultura organizada y cuyo fin es la educación del alumno.

 

Importancia de la Didáctica:

• El profesor moviliza y facilita la actividad física e intelectual
• El alumno se posciciona activamente ante el aprendizaje, ocupando el centro de la organización educativa.  

C. Klinger, 2004

Elementos de la educación

Elementos de la educación: Alumno, docente, proceso enseñanza - aprendizaje, materiales educativos y contenidos.

Alumno:

• Rol eminente activo, reflexivo, propositivo, critico, que cuestione la utilidad social del aprendizaje; que desarrolle competencias conceptuales y metodológicas.
• Ser pensante con sentimientos y emociones, capaz de transformar la realidad a partir de la internalizacion del conocimiento.

Docente: Privilegia la creatividad, propicia la apropiación del conocimiento. Orienta y guía la actividad mental constructiva del alumno, brindando ayuda pedagógica ajustada a sus competencias.

Proceso Enseñanza-Aprendizaje:

• Interactuánte alumno-maestro-contenido
• Eje transformador que desarrolla la capacidad crítica desde una perspectiva humana.

P.Freyre, 1995

 

Contenidos: Coherentes, que inviten a la reflexión al análisis, al cuestionamiento, buscando la conexión entre ellos y el contexto, que propicien el desarrollo integral.

 

Materiales educativos: 

• Todos aquellos medios y recursos que faciliten el proceso E-A dentro de un contexto educativo
• Estimula los sentidos
• Accede más fácilmente a la información cognitiva y valores. 

(Fuente tomada de la Antología "Elaboración de materiales educativos) 

Educacion - Enseñanza -Aprendizaje

Ausbel y Colbs, 1990

Educación: La educación no crea facultades en el educando, sino que coopera en su desenvolvimiento y precisión

Educare: Extrar aquello que esta dentro

Frida Diaz Barriga, 2004

 

Educación: Es el conjunto de conocimientos, ordenes y métodos por medio de los cuales se ayuda al individuo en el desarrollo y mejora de las facultades intelectuales, morales y físicas.

 

Enseñanza:

•  Es el proceso mediante el cual se comunican o transmiten conocimientos especiales o generales sobre una materia.
• Actividad conductora u orientacion hacia el dominio de los conocimientos, habilidades y actitudes. 

Robert Gagné, 1970

Aprendizaje: Es un proceso que capacita al que aprende para modificar su conducta con cierta rapidez en una forma más o menos permanente